Two main news sites oriented towards international audiences can be considered central to the Russia’s efforts: RT (formerly known as Russia Today) and Sputnik, both funded directly by the Kremlin (and both banned from the European media space following the invasion of Ukraine). Both sites have a presence across multiple mediums, including television, radio and online, and both operate in multiple languages to cater to different regions.

Throw everything at the wall and see what sticks

Hoyle: ‘As opposed to other disinformation, content from these producers comes straight from the horse’s mouth, so to speak. Their guiding idea seems to be to throw everything at the wall and see what sticks. They will often pick up on topics that are already sensitive in a particular country and then try to add salt to the wound. But the overall effects of what they do are not well understood so far, so that’s what I wanted to look at.’

Hoyle set out to investigate the mechanisms by which such propaganda works, then test those mechanisms under experimental conditions in, amongst others, the Netherlands and Latvia. Drawing on different psychological theories, he developed models to explain how the propaganda might influence audiences. Once he moved to testing the models, he found that they did indeed elicit small but meaningful responses in various European audiences. ‘There had been little psychological work done in this area, so our studies can be considered somewhat preliminary. As we look further into this topic and start to better understand the mechanisms behind such propaganda, we may well begin to see more wide-ranging results.’

'Rotten Europe'

The main narratives in Russian malign information focus on portraying European states as vulnerable, chaotic and morally corrupt. Phrases like “Gayropa” or “Rotten Europe” are used to portray European and, more broadly, Western values as deteriorating. There is frequent coverage alleging political dysfunction, institutional failure, societal divisions and the supposed negative consequences of immigration.

In the Netherlands, for example, RT depicts a 'liberal chaos', marked by high crime, inefficient institutions and a population divided by unconventional lifestyles. In Latvia, Sputnik focuses more on presenting the Baltic land as a failing state due to geopolitical shifts towards the EU and NATO, and one in which Russian-speakers are being discriminated against.

Consolidating Russian-speaking identity

It was Russian speakers in Latvia, in particular, who seemed most affected by the propaganda, with levels of perceived discrimination rising following exposure to it. Additionally, the feelings of discrimination also appeared to lead to increased feelings of group identity, suggesting that Kremlin claims of Russophobia might be helping to consolidate the Russian-speaking identity.

‘Overall, my research provides compelling evidence that Kremlin malign information is influencing European audiences. This fills a significant gap in our understanding of Russian propaganda influence and suggests a lot more study is necessary,’ says Hoyle.

Defence details

Aiden Hoyle, Weapons of Mass Division: Psychological Responses to Russian State-Sponsored Narratives in European Audiences. Supervisors are Dr. E.J. Doosje and Prof. C. Wagnsson. Co-supervisors are Dr. H. van den Berg and Prof. M.W.M. Kitzen.

Time and location

15 November, 16:00, Agnietenkapel