• Dr. Laure Michon

The research seeks to address several key questions: What role does socio-economic inequality play in patterns of issue and participation polarization? How do social networks mediate the effects and patterns of socio-economic inequality? Additionally, how do local structural factors reinforce or moderate the processes of social and issue polarization?

Currently, this project is focusing on two papers. The first paper explores the evolution of socio-economic inequality in Amsterdam and its metropolitan region over time. Preliminary findings indicate that while income distribution has not become polarized, inequality has grown, and wealth distribution has become polarized. The researchers are now examining how the interplay between educational attainment, income, wealth inequality, and social isolation has contributed to the concentration of inequality within specific households over time.

The second paper  investigates ideological polarization in Amsterdam by analyzing left-right self-placement data over time. Although the overall population shows little change in polarization, there is a notable trend among individuals with lower levels of education, who increasingly position themselves at both extremes of the left-right spectrum compared to a decade ago. In contrast, those with higher levels of education are more likely to position themselves on the extreme left of the spectrum, but not on the extreme right.

Looking ahead, the next steps include exploring the connection between patterns of socio-economic inequality and issue polarization. Additionally, the researchers are collaborating with POPnet on a subproject to investigate the role that social networks play in this interaction.

For questions, please contact:

• Xinyao Zhang (MSc)

The project is focused on uncovering the neuropsychological mechanisms that underlie political polarisation. This large-scale societal phenomenon is examined through an individual lens, specifically targeting social decision-making processes and the cognitive mechanisms that may drive polarisation. The research employs a blend of methods, including survey experiments and neuroimaging, to identify these cognitive processes. The ultimate goal is to develop and evaluate interventions that can reduce polarisation.

So far, the project has completed its first behavioural study, which examined how group political norms and general social norms influence biased sharing behaviour in social media contexts. The findings revealed a tendency for individuals to engage in attitudinal my-side sharing, meaning that people are more likely to share content that aligns with their pre-existing political beliefs. Additionally, there was evidence of group my-side sharing, where individuals interact more frequently with members of their political in-group than with those in the out-group. The study also suggested that an open social group norm, as opposed to a punitive one, might help reduce attitudinal my-side sharing.

The next steps in the research include replicating these findings in a similar study to further investigate the role of group social norms, especially given that the observed effects have been relatively modest. The researchers also plan to delve deeper into the cognitive processes behind these behaviours, rather than just examining the outcomes of biased sharing. Additionally, a new fMRI study is being developed to explore the psychophysiological mechanisms that contribute to biased information sharing and their broader implications for polarisation.

Questions? Please contact:

• Nikki Dekker (MSc)

The current research focuses on political polarization among youth in the Netherlands, specifically examining the development of political attitudes among 12 to 18-year-olds. It seeks to determine whether political polarization exists among Dutch youth, identifying which groups are involved, the topics around which polarization occurs, and the forms it takes. Additionally, the research aims to inform secondary schools and teachers about the current state of affairs in the Netherlands, and provide educators with tools to effectively manage diverse opinions on controversial topics.

So far, work has focused on two different sub-projects. The first one explores whether educational segregation fosters bubbles of like-mindedness, and does so by analysing the relationship between demographic diversity and the diversity of democratic attitudes in classrooms. This project also examines how citizenship education relates to classroom attitudinal diversity. The findings suggest that demographic diversity is more strongly associated with attitudinal diversity in classrooms than citizenship education, with classrooms exhibiting greater diversity in migration and religious backgrounds showing more diversity in democratic attitudes.

The second sub-project involves setting up a data collection initiative to gain a deeper understanding of polarization among Dutch youth. A pilot study was conducted at a secondary school, surveying 400 students about their socio-political attitudes. The results highlighted significant gender differences, with boys consistently exhibiting more conservative views than girls across nearly all topics. In addition to gender, the study examined differences based on educational tracks, school stages, and levels of engagement with the topics. Preparations are currently underway for the second phase of data collection, which will take place at several secondary schools across the Netherlands this autumn.

For questions, please reach out to:

• Dr. F.R. Hopp, Dr. J.M.C. Bathelt, Dr. B.N. Bakker

This research investigates two key interventions—mindfulness meditation and perspective-taking—to address political polarisation. Mindfulness meditation is thought to create a mental buffer, allowing for open, non-judgmental engagement with diverse viewpoints, while perspective-taking encourages empathy by understanding opposing views. The study will compare the effectiveness of these interventions across various topics and populations, and it will also explore their neural mechanisms using fMRI.

• dr. J Harambam, Dr. Marina Tulin, Dr. Boris Noordenbos

This research project explores how polarizing Russian disinformation is adapted and amplified within the Dutch conspiracy community. It emphasizes the collaborative characteristics of disinformation, where foreign propaganda and local conspiratorial activities intersect. Moreover, the study focuses on three polarizing narratives: “Biolabs,” “Nordstream,” and “LGBT Propaganda”. The findings aim to provide insights into the dynamic nature of disinformation, which may contribute to both academic knowledge and the development of effective countermeasures against polarisation.

• Dr. T.N. Incerti, Dr. T. Dobber

This project aims to investigate whether online microtargeting increases financial support for extreme political candidates. Building on a pilot experiment that showed microtargeted solicitation could boost intended donations compared to generic partisan appeals, the study plans to use more sophisticated microtargeting techniques in a simulated online environment similar to real-world social media platforms. Thus, this research addresses a gap in understanding the role of private donations in supporting extreme candidates and fostering polarisation.

• Dr. M. Rooduijn, MA J.R. Gilmore, Dr. H. Mazepus, Dr. P. R. Brown, Dr. P. R. Brown

This project investigates how the structure of political narratives influences the polarisation of political views and the recall of politically salient information. The study addresses three key questions: how text-level grammatical structures of narratives affect the processing and recall of political information; what information people reproduce or alter when prompted; and how partisanship interacts with narrative structure and content in the recall of political information. The project introduces a novel framework for understanding how narratives—often used in political communication—affect cognitive processing and recall.

• Dr. G.M. Savenije, T. Klijnstra, Dr. A.R. Feddes

The Bovenland paradigm, initially designed to assess adult responses to social issues, involves participants engaging with fictitious scenarios to explore their reactions to various forms of collective action in response to societal problems. This project aims to adapt the Bovenland paradigm for use with adolescents, focusing on its application both as a research tool and a pedagogical resource. This project contributes to the study of polarisation by providing insights into adolescent responses to extremist acts and the effectiveness of educational tools in promoting democratic values and collaborative deliberation.

• Dr. Adriana Solovei, Dr. Myrto Pantazi, Dr. Toni van der Meer, Dr. S.j.h.m. van den Putte

The project aims to study the impact of political messages on media discourse and citizen attitudes during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands. It will address two research questions: identifying elements of (de)polarisation in media coverage and understanding how governmental and media messages influence citizen polarisation. Additionally, the project explores the echo-chamber effect of media, the use of polarisation in political communication, and its impact on citizen attitudes. This is relevant for understanding how political and media communication during crises can influence societal polarisation.

• Dr. G. Hernandez

This research project aims to investigate how fitness influencers use science communication to influence their followers, but also how this communication affects public health and well-being. The study explores the extent to which these influencers utilize scientific research and evidence in their content, focusing on the divide between evidence-based fitness advice and layperson-oriented "bro-science" approaches. The project examines the visual and material aspects of polarisation based on differing values, beliefs, and attitudes.

• Dr. K Hoyer, Dr. L S Molleman

Rule-following is inherently social; people often mimic others' behaviours, whether it involves compliance or violations, based on social approval or disapproval. The project seeks to investigate how identity and polarisation influence this process, particularly whether people are more likely to comply with rules when influenced by their ingroup compared to their outgroup. This project aims to create a foundation for interdisciplinary research to better understand social norms, group dynamics, and framing effects.

• Prof. Dr. F. van Harreveld, Prof. Dr. H.L.J. van der Maas, M. Chambon

This study aims to explore polarised attitudes towards COVID-19 vaccination, focusing on three types of behaviour: vaccine acceptance, hesitancy, and refusal. The research seeks to identify the trajectories by which individuals gravitate towards these subgroups, using previously collected longitudinal survey data from the COVID-19 vaccine development and enrolment phase. The results could inform both polarisation and vaccination strategies, particularly in public health and epidemiology.

• Dr. Neeraj Prasad, Dr. Ursula Daxecker

This research examines how political elites use violence to mobilize support and increase polarisation along social cleavages. Specifically, it focuses on the Bharatya Janata Party (BJP) in the Indian states of West Bengal and Kerala. The study investigates the BJP's sponsorship of aggressive religious rallies to mobilize Hindu support by inciting violence and alienating Muslims. The study aims to highlight the inclusionary potential of violence as a mobilization tool, contributing to the literature on polarisation and offering insights relevant to the RPA Polarisation initiative.

• Dr. D.J. Berkhout, Dr. M. Dekker, Dr. Femke Kaulingfreks, Dr. Floris F. Vermeulen

While protests are seen as a vital form of citizen participation and a mechanism linking state and society, concerns exist about their potential to foster societal division and radicalization. The pilot project will assess whether protests lead to meaningful political polarisation or contribute to divisionary deadlock by conducting interviews with participants in street demonstrations. These interviews will focus on the participants' construction of political identities, views on conventional politics, and perspectives on other societal groups, including opposing activists.

• Dr. C.W. van Eck, Dr. L. van den Heijkant, Dr. G.L.A. van der Meer

There is extensive research on people's views regarding climate change, but little is known about their visual perceptions of it. Recent studies indicate that media visuals often create a psychological distance from climate change, such as using images like polar bears or "fun in the sun" depictions during heatwaves, which can minimize the urgency of the issue. This study investigate how the Dutch public visualizes climate change using an implicit association test to identify biases, including geographical distance and human involvement.

• Dr. A. R. Feddes,  Dr. R. Kesberg, Dr. B. T. Rutjens

This project aims to investigate how increased perceptions of polarisation affect trust in government and subsequent support for extreme non-normative collective actions. In this study participants will be exposed to news stories about policy decisions in a fictitious country, Bovenland, which are either threatening or non-threatening to their ingroup, with varying levels of public opinion polarisation. The study hypothesizes that under conditions of intergroup threat, reduced trust in government will lead to greater support for and willingness to engage in extreme actions by ingroup members.

• Dr. T.N. Incerti

This proposal aims to examine the impact of private campaign donations on political extremism and partisan polarisation. Specifically, it explores whether small donations to individual politicians incentivize extremism and if algorithmic targeting of potential donors amplifies this effect. Despite the increasing prevalence of small donations, it remains unclear how these contributions influence political dynamics. The study will focus on the United States and employ both experimental and observational research designs.

• Dr. Adriana Solovei, Dr. Bas van den Putte, Dr. Julia van Weert

This study investigates the polarizing beliefs of the Dutch public expressed on social media during COVID-19 and the depolarisation strategies used in governmental crisis communication. The research involves a manual content analysis of COVID-19-related governmental press conferences on YouTube. The analysis will focus on identifying depolarizing and polarizing message frames used by officials and quantifying polarisation in user comments.

• Dr. E.S. Schliesser, Dr. E. Harteveld

While some studies link affective polarisation to the erosion of democratic norms, others find potential benefits, such as increased political engagement and resilience against illiberal actors. This study investigates the impact of affective polarisation on liberal democracies, questioning the conventional wisdom that it is politically dangerous. To explore this further, an interdisciplinary conference will be organized, with theorists and social scientists discussing the usefulness of affective polarisation for democratic life.

• Dr. G.M. Savenije, T. Klijnstra

The research addresses the complexity of reasoning about social problems in a polarized society, where issues are often oversimplified in public debates and media. The goal is to develop test items that help teachers assess students' social science reasoning (SSR) skills, focusing on five key activities: comparison, causal analysis, use of theories, use of evidence, and perspective-taking. The proposal highlights the potential to fostering students’ engagement and agency in solving social problems.

• Dr. J. Harambam, dr. B. Noordenbos, dr. K. Ruijgrok

The research project aims to explore how conspiracy theories act as multimodal drivers of polarisation by investigating the interconnections between geopolitical warfare, technological infrastructures, and media ecosystems. The project includes developing a conceptual framework, mapping salient themes and actors, and creating a methodological framework for future research. Furthermore, interdisciplinary collaboration is central to this project, which leverages the expertise of sociologists, cultural analysts, and political scientists.

• Dr. A.C. (Anne) Kroon, Ms. Z. (Zilin) Lin, Dr S.A.M. (Susan) Vermeer

This project investigates factual belief polarisation, and examines how individuals with different identities perceive politically charged statements as either factual or opinion-based. The study explores annotation biases and how these biases correlate with various identities, such as political orientation, trust in institutions, and demographic factors. The research utilizes a crowdsourcing platform and machine learning techniques to create a sentence-level corpus of politically polarized topics.

• Dr. BT Rutjens

This study investigates the link between spiritual beliefs and skepticism toward science, particularly focusing on how intuitive epistemology—a reliance on experiential and subjective knowledge—might contribute to this skepticism. The study aims to develop and validate a new scale, the Youniversalism scale, to measure epistemic reliance on intuition. This scale will consist of two subscales: intuitive epistemology and epistemic relativism. Ultimatly, the study will finalize the scale, confirm its factor structure, and assess its validity.

• Dr. H.Steven Scholte, Dr. Gijs Schumacher, Dr. Bert Bakker

This study aims to investigate how motivated reasoning affects political decision-making and whether such reasoning differs based on the political orientation of individuals. The research will utilize MRI scans to analyze neural activation while participants engage in a task involving various political topics. The goal is to compare neural activation across different topic categories and determine whether political decisions are influenced more by automatic processes or deliberate reasoning.

• Dr. M. Pantazi

Past studies suggest that while many individuals adjust their views to align with the majority, a notable portion exhibit contrarian behaviour by shifting their opinions away from the perceived majority, resulting in polarisation. This research aims to understand how citizens’ perceptions of public opinion influence their own political views, and focuses on whether people conform to or diverge from perceived majority opinions. The study will assess individual characteristics such as political attitudes, conspiracy mentality, media habits, and personality traits to profile those who tend to polarize.

• Dr. A.R.T. Schuck, Dr. E.L. Tsetsi

This research explores the potential of solutions journalism to mitigate political polarisation. This approach aims to present a more balanced view by offering information on how societal problems can be addressed, which could potentially influence behaviours and attitudes positively. The study uses an online experiment focusing on climate change and comparing the effects of solutions journalism with different news versions: problem-focused, conservative (blaming the left), and liberal (blaming the right).

Dr. Bert Bakker is a Professor at the Amsterdam School of Communication Research and co-founder of the Hot Politics Lab. He is interested in the psychological roots of citizens’ political beliefs, and he researches why emotions towards members of the political party we like tend to become more positive every time, while feelings towards the opposing party become more negative over time. Over the last few years, Bakker has also studied the relationship between personality and politics. For him, “personality causes politics but politics also causes personality.” What is more, his work has challenged prior findings that claimed that liberals and conservatives show different patterns of physiological responses.

Dr. Remmert Daas is a professor at the Department of Pedagogical and Educational Sciences at the University of Amsterdam, as well as the national coordinator for Dutch participation in the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS). His research focuses on students' skills in primary and secondary education, and how polarisation may affect them. One of his studies found that discussing democratic issues in school could help teenagers learn and develop critical thinking skills. However, they often don't have the opportunity to engage in these discussions in school, despite their interest.

Dr. Han van der Maas is a distinguished research professor of Complex Systems at the University of Amsterdam, where he also teaches Psychological Methods. His research explores how ideas and opinions spread in society, such as languages and habits. Moreover, he has proposed a new mathematical approach to understand why people become polarized in their opinions. Dr. van der Maas also investigates why, when people are really involved in an issue, their opinions can become stuck, and why this may lead to a polarized society.

Dr. Anke Munniksma is a professor at the Child Development & Education Sciences department of the University of Amsterdam. Her interest in polarisation stems from a developmental perspective, as her research centres on the social development of young individuals in ethnically diverse societies. Specifically, she investigates young people's social skills are shaped by the communities they're in. In one of her studies, Dr. Munniksma found that while classroom ethnic diversity can have positive effects on certain aspects of citizenship, it may also have consequences such as reduced institutional trust, a factor often associated with political polarisation.

Dr. Eelco Harteveld is an associate professor in the Department of Political Science at the University of Amsterdam. He studies political behaviour, focusing on polarisation, and aims to identify the origins and consequences of affective polarisation, which is the tendency in Western democracies for people to become more hostile towards those with different views or party preferences. Dr. Harteveld believes that understanding this phenomenon is crucial for formulating ways to prevent societal and political dysfunction. Moreover, he launched the Thermometer App to find out about the ways in which politics divides citizens in the Netherlands.

Dr. Christin Scholz is a Professor at the Amsterdam School of Communication Research, and she is interested in the impact of persuasive media messages on health and social polarisation. Currently, she is investigating how conversations between people who initially disagree can influence their attitudes and behaviours, particularly regarding topics like environmental conservation or healthy living. Dr. Scholz also works studying the basic psychological mechanisms of attitude formation, the developmental patterns of polarisation in children and teens, and the main biases in communication that may be indicative of polarisation.

Dr. Gijs Schumacher is a Professor of Political Science at the University of Amsterdam and the co-director of the Hot Politics Lab. His research focuses on populism, the relationship between personality and emotions, and political polarisation. In his research, he tackles important questions such as: how do elites use emotions to connect with citizens? Or how do emotions impact citizen decision-making? Dr. Schumacher's studies have revealed that while being empathetic might contribute to emotional divisions between political groups, attempting to see things from others' perspectives can help reduce it.

“How do people understand political trust? Perhaps you are thinking about these questions in something completely different than I am”. Dr. Eefje Steenvoorden is a scientist specialized in political trust. She has conducted research on polarisation and social unease, which is the individual feeling that society is in a precarious state. She wants to understand why there is a general feeling among individuals that the country is heading in the wrong direction, which in turn may lead to a collective powerlessness to reverse that decline. Additionally, an study by Dr. Steenvoorden suggests that voting behaviour and attitudes affect one another, resulting in a spiral of increasingly polarized stances between groups of voters.

Dr. Marte Otten is a Psychology professor at the University of Amsterdam. Her research focuses on how our beliefs influence the way we perceive the world around us. This also means that political convictions may affect how we think, and this is what Dr. Otten wants to find out. She  aims to work with large sets of data to see if they align with prior findings regarding the interaction between beliefs, cognition, and societal polarisation. She explores this topic through cognitive models, which are essentially computer simulations based on theories of human thought processes. Then, she determines the extent to which real human cognition matches these models.

Justus Uitermark is a professor of urban geography at the University of Amsterdam, and the Academic Director of the Amsterdam Institute for Social Science Research. He researches how humans shape urban environments and how those environments, in turn, shape human behaviour. Dr. Uitermark's work on polarisation has examined how social media and urban environments can contribute to feelings of division among people. His research suggests that the online world may not be as polarized as commonly believed, and he has also explored how ignoring negative interactions on social media can distort our understanding of polarisation in online discussions.